Essay Construction

The Australian Harvard style of referencing consists of two elements: • In-text citations in the body of the paper – provide the author, date and often a page number. A reference list at the end of the paper – provide full bibliographic details of all in-text citations.

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.
While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.
You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.
Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay.

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?
An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs.
It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.
Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs, it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.
A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).
B – Background sentences
H – Hypothesis
E – Elaboration sentences
S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences
The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis, your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.
Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

Example hypotheses:
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.
Example elaboration sentences:

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence – stating what you intend to discuss using phrases and words to guide the reader through the content of your essay. There are two main types of signposting: introductions, conclusions and outlining main arguments/ the direction of the argument in paragraphs/opening phrases.

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph.
Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make.
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together
Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the

Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Every History essay needs a series of paragraphs that provide a detailed explanation of the argument that appeared in your hypothesis.

Body paragraphs
Body paragraphs present one aspect of your hypothesis’ argument, which is then explained and supported by evidence from historical sources.

By the time your marker has finished reading each body paragraph, they should understand the point you were attempting to prove and how it relates to the argument presented in your essay’s hypothesis.
Body paragraph structure
Body paragraphs are highly structured pieces of writing and each sentence of them has a specific purpose.

You should never write sentences to simply ‘fill space’ because your marker will quickly realise that you’re not following the correct structure.
A well-written body paragraph has the following six-part structure (summarised by the acronym TEEASC).
T – Topic Sentence
E – Explanation Sentences
E – Evidence from sources
A – Analysis of sources
S – Synthesis sentence
C – Concluding sentence
Each element of this structure is explained further, with examples, below:

1. Topic Sentence
Your very first sentence should clearly state what point from your hypothesis you are going to be arguing in this paragraph.
The more specific you are about your point, the better your topic sentence will be.
Not only does your topic sentence state your argument, it should also provide a specific reason for why your argument is true.
This reason will be proven during your body paragraph based upon the evidence you’re going to quote from your sources.

Your reason is usually preceded by words such as "because", "due to", or "as a result of".
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
Marius' consulship in 107 BC led to the new enlistment of the lower-class citizens of Rome as soldiers, something that had never been done before, which resulted in major Roman victories.

2. Explanation sentences
After you’ve stated the point you’re going to prove in your topic sentence, you need to explain your point and your reason in detail.

This will often require two or three sentences.
In your explanation sentences, you need to provide specific historical information so that your marker understands what you meant in your topic sentence.

To do this, include the names, dates, people, places and terminology from either your background research or your own historical knowledge.

Example Explanation Sentences:
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
Throughout most of the Roman Republic, only Roman citizens who possessed land were able to join the exercitus romanus (Roman army); however, this law was abolished by Gaius Marius in 107 BC and led to what would be a major part in the consul’s victories throughout the second century BC.

3. Evidence from sources
After you’ve stated your argument in your topic sentence and explained it further in your explanation sentences, you then need to prove your argument by incorporating a number of good pieces of evidence (usually 2-3) from your historical sources.

You should show this evidence through the use of direct and indirect quotes. Remember that you are trying to prove the argument that you stated in your topic sentence, so only provide information that helps show this.
When using direct quotes, they should be incorporated into your own sentences and should not be an entire sentence by themselves.

A typical evidence sentence has the following structure (referencing):
[Source Creator's name] says that [direct/indirect quote], which shows that [explanation] (in-text reference).
For example:
Smith argues that "Romans were cruel soldiers", which shows that Roman legionaries had a reputation for excessive violence (1977, 186).

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
According to Boatwright, Gargola and Talbert, all classics professors specialising in Roman culture and history, after Marius was elected as consul in 107 BC by the populus romanus, he initiated the new recruitment of any Roman citizen into the Roman army and made the eagle the legion's principal standard (2004, 171). This comment is supported by Connolly, a British historian specialising in Roman warfare, who says that "he threw the legions open to any volunteer who could claim Roman citizenship” (2012, 213).

Both sources clearly state that it was Marius who instigated the new recruitment of Roman soldiers. Therefore, Marius was able to achieve “numerous successes that were of incredible magnitude" (Plutarch, Gaius Marius, 8). Plutarch’s Gaius Marius not only details the major events of the Roman consul’s life but also provides a valuable insight and is representative of the upper-class Greek people of the second century AD. This comment from Plutarch is reinforced by Cambridge University scholar, and British historian, Scullard: Marius' victories were due to his military reforms (2011, 47).

4. Analysis of sources
When you are providing evidence from your sources to prove your topic sentence, you should give your marker a reason to trust the sources you’re quoting from.
Therefore, include some analysis and evaluation of each source. The easiest way to do this is to include information about each source’s author that would encourage your reader to respect their opinion.
This can include details about the author’s perspective, intended audience, or reliability.

For example:
Smith is a reliable source because he is a professor of Modern History at Oxford University.
Great essays combine their analysis of sources in the same sentences where they provided their quotes.
This saves space and shows a level of sophistication that markers like.
A structure for combining evidence and analysis in a single sentence:

For primary sources:
[Source creator’s name] who [time of creation, perspective, audience, etc.] said that [quote] which shows that [explanation] (in-text reference).

For example:
Cicero, who was present at the meeting, claims that Caesar was driven by personal glory, which indicates that he didn’t believe that the dictator couldn’t be trusted (Ad Atticus, III.12).
For secondary sources:
[Source creator’s name] who [perspective, purpose, etc.] said that [quote] which shows that [explanation] (in-text reference).
For example:
Oxford professor of Modern History, Smith, argues that "Romans were cruel soldiers", which shows that Roman legionaries had a reputation for excessive violence (1977, 186).

5. Synthesis sentence
After you have provided quotes to support your argument in your evidence and analysis sentences, you need to remind your marker how your evidence works together to prove your topic sentence.

To do this, provide a quick summary in one sentence about how all of your quotes proves what you said in your topic sentence.

The easiest way to do this might be to point out how one source corroborates the evidence of another source.

Example Synthesis sentences:
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
The evidence from both ancient and modern sources, confirms that Gaius Marius was responsible for the reforming of the Roman army and from this achieved many victories.

6. Concluding sentence
The final sentence of your body paragraph simply restates what you have proven in your paragraph.
In most cases, it will reword and restate what your argument was in your topic sentence.

Because it is summarising what you’ve already stated, a concluding sentence often begins with the phrases ‘Therefore’, ‘As a result’, or ‘Consequently’.
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
As is clear, Marius' consulship opened up new recruiting options for Roman generals, which increased the frequency of military successes on the battlefield.

Putting it all together
Once you have written all six parts of the structure, you should have a completed body paragraph.
In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what a body paragraph should look like.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
Marius' consulship in 107 BC led to the new enlistment of the lower-class citizens of Rome as soldiers, something that had never been done before, which resulted in major Roman victories. Throughout most of the Roman Republic, only Roman citizens who possessed land were able to join the exercitus romanus (Roman army); however, this law was abolished by Gaius Marius in 107 BC and led to what would be a major part in the consul’s victories throughout the second century BC. According to Boatwright, Gargola and Talbert, all classics professors specialising in Roman culture and history, after Marius was elected as consul in 107 BC by the populus romanus, he initiated the new recruitment of any Roman citizen into the Roman army and made the eagle the legion's principal standard (2004, 171).

This comment is supported by Connolly, a British historian specialising in Roman warfare, who says that "he threw the legions open to any volunteer who could claim Roman citizenship” (2012, 213). Both sources clearly state that it was Marius who instigated the new recruitment of Roman soldiers. Therefore, Marius was able to achieve “numerous successes that were of incredible magnitude" (Plutarch, Gaius Marius, 8).
Plutarch’s Gaius Marius not only details the major events of the Roman consul’s life but also provides a valuable insight and is representative of the upper-class Greek people of the second century AD. This comment from Plutarch is reinforced by Cambridge University scholar, and British historian, Scullard: Marius' victories were due to his military reforms (2011, 47).

The evidence from both ancient and modern sources, confirms that Gaius Marius was responsible for the reforming of the Roman army and from this achieved many victories. As is clear, Marius' consulship opened up new recruiting options for Roman generals, which increased the frequency of military successes on the battlefield.
Every essay needs to end with a concluding paragraph. It is the last paragraph the marker reads, and this will typically be the last paragraph that you write.

What is a ‘concluding paragraph?
The conclusion is the final paragraph of your essay that reminds the reader about the points you have made and how it proves the argument which you stated in your hypothesis.

By the time your marker reads your conclusion, they have read all the evidence you have presented in your body paragraphs. This is your last opportunity to show that you have proven your points.

While your conclusion will talk about the same points you made in your introduction, it should not read exactly the same. Instead, it should state the same information in a more developed form and bring the essay to an end.
In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your conclusion.
Concluding paragraph structure

While the concluding paragraph will normally be shorter than your introductory and body paragraphs, it still has a specific role to fulfil.

A well-written concluding paragraph has the following three-part structure:
• Restate your key points
• Restate your hypothesis
• Concluding sentence

Each element of this structure is explained further, with examples, below:
1. Restate your key points
In one or two sentences, restate each of the topic sentences from your body paragraphs. This is to remind the marker about how you proved your argument.
This information will be similar to your elaboration sentences in your introduction, but will be much briefer.

Since this is a summary of your entire essay’s argument, you will often want to start your conclusion with a phrase to highlight this. For example: “In conclusion”, “In summary”, “To briefly summarise”, or “Overall”.
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
Overall, the Marian military reforms directly changed Roman political campaigns and the role of public opinion in military command assignments across a variety of Roman societal practices.

2. Restate your hypothesis
This is a single sentence that restates the hypothesis from your introductory paragraph.
Don’t simply copy it word-for-word. It should be restated in a different way, but still clearly saying what you have been arguing for the whole of your essay.

Make it clear to your marker that you are clearly restating you argument by beginning this sentence a phrase to highlight this. For example: “Therefore”, “This proves that”, “Consequently”, or “Ultimately”.

Example restated hypotheses:
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
Ultimately, it can be safely argued that Gaius Marius was instrumental in revolutionising the republican political, military and social structures in the 1st century BC.

3. Concluding sentence
This is the final sentence of your conclusion that provides a final statement about the implications of your arguments for modern understandings of the topic. Alternatively, it could make a statement about what the effect of this historical person or event had on history.

Example concluding sentence:
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
The impact of these changes effectively prepared the way for other political figures, like Pompey, Julius Caesar and Octavian, who would ultimately transform the Roman republic into an empire.
Puttng it all together

Once you have written all three parts of, you should have a completed concluding paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what a conclusion should look like.

Example conclusion paragraph
Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)
Overall, the Marian military reforms directly changed Roman political campaigns and the role of public opinion in military command assignments across a variety of Roman societal practices. Ultimately, it can be safely argued that Gaius Marius was instrumental in revolutionising the republican political, military and social structures in the 1st century BC. The impact of these changes effectively prepared the way for other political figures, like Pompey, Julius Caesar and Octavian, who would ultimately transform the Roman republic into an empire.